Gases consist of particles that are relatively far apart (as compared to liquids and solids).
This results in observed properties:
Lower densities
Compressible by applying external pressure
Gas particles move about rapidly.
Gas particles have little effect on one another unless they collide.
When they collide, gas particles simply bounce off one another.
Gases expand to fill containers.
Take volume and shape of their containers
Effect of Temperature and Density
All gases expand if heated and contract if cooled.
Heat increases the kinetic energy of gas particles, making them move faster and farther apart.
Since the gas particles move farther apart, there are fewer particles within a given volume.
Therefore, warm gases have lower densities.
Physical Effect of Temperature and Density
Pressure
Is amount of force applied per unit area
\[ P=\frac{\chem{force}}{\chem{area}} \]
For a gas in a container:
\[ P=\frac{\text{force of gas particles}}{\text{area of container}} \]
Crushing a Can
Pressure
Pressure is measured using a barometer.
Units of pressure
\( 1\, atm = 760\, mm\, Hg \) (mm Hg and torr are the same)
\( 1\, atm = 14.7\,\bfrac{lb}{in^2} \) (psi)
\( 1\, atm = 101325\, Pa \)
Factors That Affect the Properties of Gases
Volume
Measured in liters (L)
Pressure
Measured in atmospheres (atm)
Temperature
Measured in Kelvin (K)
Amount of particles
Measured in moles
An ideal gas is a gas that behaves according to predicted linear relationships
Volume vs. Pressure
Boyle's Law
For a given mass of gas at constant temperature, volume varies inversely with pressure.
\[ V \propto \frac{1}{P} \]
\[ P_1V_1 = P_2V_2 \]
As volume increases, pressure decreases.
Volume vs. Temperature
Charles' Law
For a given mass of gas at constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to temperature on an absolute (kelvin) scale.
\[ T_K=T_{{}^\circ C} + 273.15 \]
\[ V \propto T_K \]
\[ \frac{V_1}{T_1} = \frac{V_2}{T_2} \]
As volume increases, temperature increases.
Combined Gas Law
For a constant amount of gas, volume is proportional to absolute temperature divided by pressure.
\[ V \propto \frac{T}{P} \]
\[ \frac{P_1V_1}{T_1} = \frac{P_2V_2}{T_2} \]
Combining Volumes
Gay-Lussac's law of combining volumes
Gases combine in simple whole-number volume proportions at constant temperature and pressure.
Avogadro's Hypothesis
The volume occupied by a gas at a given temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the number of gas particles and thus to the moles of gas.
\[ V \propto n \]
\[ \frac{V_1}{n_1} = \frac{V_2}{n_2} \]
As volume increases, the moles of gas increase.
Avogadro's Hypothesis (cont.)
At a given pressure and temperature, equal volumes of all gases contain equal numbers of moles (or particles).
This hypothesis was measured at standard temperature and pressure (STP): \( 0^\circ C \) and \( 1\, atm \)
The volume of an ideal gas at STP is called its molar volume: 1 mole of gas = 22.414 L
Summary of The Gas Laws
Boyle's law
\[ V \propto \frac{1}{P} \text{ at constant T, n} \]
Charles's law
\[ V \propto T \text{ at constant P, n} \]
Avogadro's hypothesis
\[ V \propto n \text{ at constant T, P} \]
Combining them all into one proportionality:
\[ V \propto \frac{nT}{P} \]
The Ideal Gas Law
We can express the previous statement as an equality:
\[ V = \text{constant}\times \frac{nT}{P} \]
This constant is called the ideal gas constant, \(R\).
This gives us the Ideal Gas Law:
\[ V=R\times \frac{nT}{P} \xrightarrow{\text{algebra}} PV=nRT \]
\(R\) is calculated at STP using the molar volume of a gas:
\[ R=0.08206\,\frac{\chem{L\cdot atm}}{\chem{K\cdot mol}} \]
We can solve for density in the Ideal Gas Law using substitution:
\[ PV=nRT \]
\[ n=\bfrac{m}{MM} \]
\[ PV=\frac{mRT}{MM} \]
\[ \frac{P\left(MM\right)}{RT} =\frac{m}{V} = d \]
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
Gases in a mixture behave independently and exert the same pressure they would exert if they were in a container alone.
\[ P_\text{total} = P_A+P_B+P_C+\cdots \]
\[ P_\text{total} = P_\text{dry air} + P_\text{water} \]
Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures
Temperature (\({}^\circ C\))
Vapor Pressure (torr)
Temperature (\({}^\circ C\))
Vapor Pressure (torr)
0
4.6
28
28.3
5
6.5
29
30.0
10
9.2
30
31.8
15
12.8
35
42.2
16
13.6
40
55.3
17
14.5
45
71.9
18
15.5
50
92.5
19
16.5
60
149.4
20
17.5
70
233.7
21
18.6
80
355.1
22
19.8
90
525.8
23
21.1
100
760.0
24
22.4
110
1074.6
25
23.8
150
3570.5
26
25.2
200
11659.2
27
26.7
300
64432.8
Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
A model that explains experimental observations about gases under normal temperature and pressure conditions that we encounter in our environment
Has 5 postulates:
Gases are composed of small and widely separated particles (molecules or atoms).
Low volumes of particles
Low densities of gas
High compressibility
Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases (cont.)
Postulates continued:
Particles of a gas behave independently of one another.
Independent movement, unless two particles collide.
No forces of attraction or repulsion operate between and among gas particles.
Each particle in a gas is in rapid, straight-line motion, until it collides with another molecule or with its container.
When collisions occur, the collisions are perfectly elastic.
Energy transferred from one particle to another with no net loss of energy.
Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases (cont. again)
Postulates continued:
The pressure of a gas arises from the sum of the collisions of the particles with the walls of the container.
The smaller the container, the more collisions between the gas particles and the walls of the container, resulting in higher pressures.
Predicts pressure should be proportional to the number of gas particles.
Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases (concluded)
Postulates continued:
The average kinetic energy of gas particles depends on the absolute temperature.
Relationship between kinetic energy (\(KE\)) and velocity (\(v\)) of the gas particles:
\[ KE_{av} = \frac{1}{2} mv_{av}^2 \]
The average velocity for gas particles is greater at higher temperatures.
Thus, if the particles move faster, they hit the walls of the container more often, resulting in higher pressure.
The 5th Postulate
Effect of the Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases
Diffusion
The movement of gas particles from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration.
\[ KE_{av} = \frac{1}{2}mv_{av}^2 \]
Gases have different average velocities even though they all have the same average kinetic energy.
Light molecules or atoms move faster than heavy molecules or atoms.
Effusion
The passage of a gas through a small opening.
Smaller particles effuse faster than larger ones.
Gases and Chemical Reactions
We can convert from volume to moles or moles to volume using the Ideal Gas Law as our conversion factor.
\[ \text{Vol A} \xrightarrow{PV=nRT} \text{Mol A} \xrightarrow{\text{Mole ratio}} \text{Mol B} \xrightarrow{PV=nRT} \text{Vol B} \]
We can put mass into our conversion
\[ \text{Mass A} \xrightarrow{\text{Molar Mass}} \text{Mol A} \xrightarrow{\text{Mole ratio}} \text{Mol B} \xrightarrow{\text{Molar Mass}} \text{Mass B} \]
\[ \text{Vol A} \xrightarrow{PV=nRT} \text{Mol A} \xrightarrow{\text{Mole ratio}} \text{Mol B} \xrightarrow{\text{Molar Mass}} \text{Mass B} \]